Cost Terms, Concepts, and Classifications - 9388 Words

Chapter 2 Cost Terms, Concepts, and Classifications Learning Objectives LO1. Identify and give examples of each of the three basic manufacturing cost categories. LO2. Distinguish between product costs and period costs and give examples of each. LO3. Prepare an income statement including calculation of the cost of goods sold. LO4. Prepare a schedule of cost of goods manufactured. LO5. Understand the differences between variable costs and fixed costs. LO6. Understand the differences between direct and indirect costs. LO7. Define and give examples of cost classifications used in making decisions: differential costs, opportunity costs, and sunk costs. LO8.†¦show more content†¦2. Non-manufacturing costs. A manufacturing company incurs many other costs in addition to manufacturing costs. For financial reporting purposes most of these other costs are typically classified as selling (marketing) costs and administrative costs. Marketing and administrative costs are incurred in both manufacturing and merchandising firms. a. Marketing Costs. These costs include the costs of making sales, taking customer orders, and delivering the product to customers. These costs are also referred to as order-getting and order-filling costs. b. Administrative Costs. These costs include all executive, organizational, and clerical costs that are not classified as production or marketing costs. 3. Period vs. product costs. Costs can also be classified as period or product costs. a. Period Costs. Period costs are expensed in the time period in which they are incurred. All selling and administrative costs are typically considered to be period costs. You should be careful to point out that the usual rules of accrual accounting apply. For example, administrative salary costs are â€Å"incurred† when they are earned and not necessarily when they are paid to employees. b. Product Costs. Product costs are added to units of product (i.e., â€Å"inventoried†) as they are incurred and are not treated as expenses until the units are sold. This can result in a delay of one or more periods between the time in which the cost is incurred andShow MoreRelatedThe 4p Classification of the Marketing Mix Revisited1201 Words   |  5 PagesThe 4P s Classification of the Marketing Mix Revisited This article, addresses the prime classifications scheme in marketing, the 4P configuration of the marketing mix. The marketing discipline needs a strong classification of the marketing mix, not only to stimulate conceptual integration and purification of the discipline, but also for meaningful measurement of marketing mix efforts and their effects. Also, managers need a clear classification of all instruments at their disposal in orderRead MoreCommodity School1154 Words   |  5 Pagestwo dimensions of a matrix. One perspective is interactive-noninteractive while the other is economic-noneconomic. In first dimension, for the noninteractive schools selling is the essential concept whereas relationship is main source for interactive schools. In second dimension, for economic classification, the focus is economic variables such as production and distribution efficiency, prices of inputs and outputs, and consumer income levels. At the other dimension, participants of marketing activiti esRead MorePrice Escalation And Why It Can Mislead An International Marketer1639 Words   |  7 Pagesof items and changes to that price is a key strategic marketing decision by organizations. This document will discuss the concept of price escalation and why it can mislead an international marketer. The causes of price escalation will also be analyzed and how they differ for exports and goods produced and sold in a foreign country if applicable. Understanding the concept and causes of price escalation can help international marketers address this problem for their global organizations. FinallyRead MoreImprove Inventory Management To Support Maintenance Management Program1402 Words   |  6 Pagesmanagement plays an important role in supporting the companys performance, which relates to customer satisfaction, cost of production and financial performance. Ruauw (2011) stated that the raw materials required should be sufficient available so as to ensure smooth production. Howev er, should the quantity of inventory it should not be too large so that capital tied up in inventory and costs. Meanwhile the inventory is not too big and not too small anyway because can slow down the production process.Read MoreLexicon Generation Research Paper815 Words   |  4 Pages2 Related Work Several well-regarded manually compiled sentiment lexicons do exist [2-4]. Due to their high cost in terms of time and effort, however, a large volume of research concentrated on automated sentiment lexicon generation has emerged in the past few years. Automated sentiment lexicon generation branches in two main directions: dictionarybased and corpus-based. The volume editors, usually the program chairs, will be your main points of contact for the preparation of the volume. The dictionary-basedRead MoreIntroduction. This Paper Provides A Discussion Of The Electronic1523 Words   |  7 Pagesand reduce costs. Implementation of electronic health records are medical based, and rely on standard terminologies that are medicine and disease based, such as the Systemized Nomenclature of Medicine (SNOWMED), and the International Classification of Diseases (ICD). Both are very important for EHR development. The latest version of ICD is ICD-10, and the version of SNOWMED that has some use to the nursing profession is SNOWMED-CT (Systematic Nomenclature of Medicine-Clinical Terms). TheRead MoreAn Enhanced Approach For Web Services Clustering Using Supervised Machine Learning Techniques1698 Words   |  7 PagesAn Enhanced Approach for Web Services Clustering using Supervised Machine Learning Techniques ABSTRACT Automatic document classification provides techniques that may improve and support web service clustering. As the number of services increases, the cost of classifying services through manual work increases. In this research, we presented an enhanced approach for service clustering that combines text mining and machine learning technology. The method only uses text description of each serviceRead MoreApplied Mathematics In Data Mining. Introduction. According1244 Words   |  5 Pagesthough data mining is a novel term, technology isn’t, since organizations have utilized superior computers to filter large data amounts from supermarket scanners and examined market research reports over years. 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In this section each of these components is discussed in about this term. 1.4 COMMON COMPONENTS OF ONTOLOGY: †¢ Class †¢ Attributes †¢ Relations 1.4.1 CLASS It is set of collection.its concept classes in programmingRead MoreMarket Analysis : Supply Chain Network1741 Words   |  7 Pageshugely competitive market must find the right supply chain solutions that will able them to deliver their products to customer at right place and a right time. Retailers always aim for broader product variety , best profitable selling price and lower cost (Hubner and Kuhn, 2012) and are growing vertically by encompassing more logistical functions (Fernie et al., 2010). In this volatile economic environment, retail industries are experiencing with some supply chain issues such as complexity in supply

Essay on Ncfe Principles of Dementia Care Level 2

Assessment 1.1: understanding dementia 1. Explain what is meant by the term ‘dementia’. Dementia is a term used to describe a collection of signs and symptoms that happen to the brain when it is affected by the progression of certain diseases such as vascular dementia (when brain cells die due to lack of oxygen) and Alzheimer’s disease (a specific brain disease). Some of the affects these diseases have are on a person’s memory, language and communication abilities, behaviour and ability to make rational judgements. 2. The estimated total number of people diagnosed with dementia in the uk is 820,000 3.1 The estimated worldwide number of people with dementia is 35 million 3.2 In terms of ratio the prevalence of†¦show more content†¦c) Cerebellum – when an individual is affected with dementia in this lobe they will have problems with their balance and co-ordination. This can lead to them having more falls than they previously had. 6. Why each of these following conditions could be mistaken for dementia a) Depression- individuals with severe depression suffer with poor memories and lack concentration. They will also become less motivated and become withdraw. These are all signs of dementia. A general practitioner may think that it is more likely that an elderly person is suffering from dementia than depression. b) Delirium – this illness comes on quickly and advances rapidly. It is caused by infections, dehydration, and thyroid dysfunction and can be a side effect from certain drugs. Once the individual is receiving treatment they will be on their way to returning to their normal state. The symptoms are similar to dementia as it can cause memory loss, disorientation, language disturbances and hallucinations. c) Age-related cognitive impairment (or mild cognitive impairment MCI) – is when an elderly person’s memory starts to wane and they have problems recalling their short term memories, they have difficulty learning new things, their thinking process starts to become reduced and have difficulty concentrating. It is thought that MCI can develop due to alcohol abuse and cognitive decline (poor diet, chronic inflammation, vascular disease andShow MoreRelatedNcfe Level 2 Certificate in the Principles of Dementia Care.2763 Words   |  12 PagesLee Clark. NCFE level 2 Certificate in the Principles of Dementia Care. Unit 1. Q1. Explain what is meant by the term dementia Dementia is a broad term used to describe the symptoms that occur when the brain is affected by specific diseases and conditions.Dementia is a progressive disease and the symptoms will get gradually worse. | Q2. Describe how dementia can affect a person if the following areas of the brain are damaged by dementia. Area of Brain | How damage to this area might

The Presidio San Elizario Free Essays

The Presidio of San Elizario In 1598, the Spanish nobleman, Don Juan De Onate from Zacatecas, Mexico was leading a group of Spanish colonists from Mexico to settle the newly discovered province of New Mexico. The group traveled for weeks across the desert until it reached the banks of the Rio Grande River near the San Elizario area. Soon afterward, Onate proclaimed possession of this area in the name of his King, Phillip II. We will write a custom essay sample on The Presidio San Elizario or any similar topic only for you Order Now The small town of San Elizario is named after the French Saint Elcear, the French patron saint of the military. It is one of the oldest communities in the El Paso Area. The community was established during the late 1700’s. A presidio was built in the area in order to protect the Spanish settlers from the attacking Apache and Comanche Indian raiders. The exact date of when the presidio of San Elizario was first built remains a debate between many local historians. One well known area historian, Metz, writes, â€Å"The original presidio was built around 1773 and that the original chapel was built of mostly adobe and some wood, and took approximately 40 years to construct. Most of the work was done by prisoners, some of them Indian, mostly Apache. (254). As noted by an online source, the presidio itself was surrounded by a double wall of adobe measuring 13 feet tall by seven feet wide. Inside were barracks for soldiers and special officer quarters. Also within the fort were family residences, corrals, store rooms, and a small chapel. This small chapel was built in a box pattern reflecting the early â€Å"European colonialism. † (San Elizario). The chapel has gone through major changes throughout its history, yet still remains close to its original location to this day. As historian John O. West notes, the San Elizario Presidio is often mistaken as a mission. However, the presidio of San Elizario was not created to convert the local natives to Christianity, but in fact was created as a fort or presidio to protect the Camino Real and other area settlements from Apache and Comanche Indian raiders. (19). An online source also notes that the presidio was involved in numerous military engagements and natural disasters which forced its movement many times throughout it’s early history. (Reyes). According to another historian, Douglas Kent Hall, â€Å"The presidio was moved 37 miles up the Rio Grande in 1780 to its current site. † (131). According to another internet source, â€Å"During the early 1830’s the unpredictable Rio Grande River changed course, virtually isolating San Elizario and its surrounding communities as an island in the middle of the Rio Grande. † (San Elizario). After the US-Mexico War of 1846-1848, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed, establishing the Rio Grande River as the boundary between Texas and Mexico. This left San Elizario to become part of what is now the state of Texas. San Elizario is steeped in both Texas, and Hispanic history. Still remaining today, the San Elizario presidio and chapel has moved many times and gone through many changes since its original construction. One online source notes, in 1829, the Rio Grande flooded completely destroying the â€Å"Chapel at San Elizario. † (San Elizario). A different Website points out that the chapel that stands in the same location today was rebuilt in 1882. (Kohut). Another online source notes, the exterior has changed little from its original construction. The main difference was in the change of the front â€Å"facade,† as this added to the, â€Å"early European colonial,† influence on the contemporary construction of the time. A fire destroyed much of the interior of the chapel in 1935. The inside has undergone dramatic changes since then, again reflecting the influence of â€Å"European architectural style. † With â€Å"pressed-tin† covering the original ceiling covers and beams. Several additions have also been made to the exterior of the chapel. For instance, an orchard has been added to the east side of the chapel and the surrounding plaza. More adobe structures have also been added to the surrounding area in order to add to the formality of the area. The formal rectangular patterned streets and building orientation â€Å"reflects the elements of early Spanish colonialism. † In 1944 the chapel was repainted in order to honor the local soldiers who fought overseas in World War II. (San Elizario). A local college student writes in the Borderlands Website that a â€Å"major restoration of the chapel† began in 1993, however much work still needs to be done to the exterior walls of the structure. The Mission Trail Association, which was formed in 1986, has done much work to uphold the heritage of the chapel at San Elizario and other local Missions. Through their hard work, the Socorro and Ysleta missions, along with the San Elizario chapel have retained their beauty and strength through hundreds of years of faith and devotion. (Reyes). With the help of the Mission Trail Association and donations from tourists and local interest in its preservation, the San Elizario chapel can be a monument for many more generations to enjoy. Works Cited Hall, Douglas Kent. Frontier Spirit: Early Churches of the Southwest. New York: Abbeville Press, 1990. Print. Metz, Leon C. El Paso: Guided Through Time. El Paso, Texas: Mangan Books, 1999. Print. West, John O. â€Å"Presidio Chapel San Elceario: San Elizario, Texas, USA. † The Mission Trail: El Paso/Juarez. Ed. Laura Jusso. El Paso, Texas: Sundance Press, 1996. Print. Reyes, Blanca et al. â€Å"Area Missions are Part of Living History. † Borderlands. Web. 22 Jan 2009. â€Å"San Elizario Walking Tour. † El Paso County History. Web. 18 Dec 2009. Kohout, Martin D. â€Å"San Elizario Presidio. † Handbook of Texas Online. Web. 23 Apr 2009. How to cite The Presidio San Elizario, Essay examples

Women in Hiphop free essay sample

Women, Hip-Hop, and Popular Music As coeditors of this special issue of Meridians, we set out to provide a forum to enrich, challenge, and expand the present discourse regarding the representation of women in contemporary popular music, and particularly in hip-hop.This issues three organizing themes-?Hip-Hop (and) Feminism; Sight and Sound; and Rage against the Machine-?address the debates and intergenerational tensions regarding the liberators potential of hip-hop, the global significance and transnational expression of popular music, and the implications of hip-hop as both a hegemonic (successful corporate commodity) and counter-hegemonic (street subculture) phenomenon, respectively.Taken together and placed in conversation with different musical genres, performances, and cultural practices, the works assembled here attempt a broadening and deepening of our knowledge of womens roles and representations as they engage in music-making and image-shaping in lucrative and marginalia mar kets. An important goal for this issue is the expansion of critical ensues often used to study the complex category of women and music. Feminist musicologists who began to excavate the history of women composers and musicians in the early sass in the wake of the womens movement were initially viewed with scorn In a discipline that had privileged male musical genius (McClain 1991). Moreover, other musical elements, such as womens [Meridians: feminism. Race, transnational 2008, Volvo. 8, no. 1. Up. 1-14] 2008 by Smith College. All rights reserved. Vocal music and song lyrics, often ranked lower in scholarly and social prestige than mens instrumental music skills (Becker 1990).Questions of artistic genius posed by feminists in the realm of music (McClain 1991; Citron 2000), art (Gnocchi 1971; Wallace 1998), or literature (Wolf 1929; Lorded 1984; Walker 1984), remind us of material realities, class positions, and the limited but alternative ways that women have accessed opportunities to hone their creative skills. Such questions have led to a scholarly recovery of womens voices (literally) and the genius of vocal music. Nowhere Is this more strongly conveyed than In the critical reclamations of black womens vocal music traditions, whether as singers or rappers.Recent publications in the field of black feminist music scholarship, including Iatric Roses Black Noise (1994), Angela Y. Davits Blues Legacies and Black Feminism (1998), Farad Jasmine Griffins biography of Billie Holiday, If You Cant Be Free, Be a Mystery (2002), and Gondolas Boughs Check It While I Wreck It (2004), highlight these skills, even while India. Rare, emphasize in performances and promotional images their roles as musicians through their virtuosic performances on the piano or the guitar respectively.Such tensions between womens vocal and instrumental music reductions suggest that vocalist is still a contested form of art or genius, or that women vocalists are less respected if they do not master instrumental music and, hence, the full music production process. Interestingly, most, if not all, of the contributions to this issue have focused on women and their vocal and corporeal performances. This primary representation of women in music might suggest that instrumentality-?like vocalist-?is deeply gendered and sexualities but-?unlike vocalist-?is still exclusionary.In light of womens vocal access to music (or reorganized representation in popular instrumental music), they have nonetheless been able to utilize popular music as a site of expression and resistance. Other issues of concern include the ever-increasing global reach of the U. S. Music industry -?a multi-billion dollar business that markets music as a profitable entity while simultaneously inculcating worldwide audiences with dominant ideologies of race, class, gender, sexuality, and nationality (Berry 2003). In this business, womens images are the commodities sold as well as the currency.Additionally, raced and gendered stereotypes of women prevail on a global scale. Women in varying cultures have been meridians 8: portrayed either as decorative, fetishistic, manipulative, fragile, or in need of rescuing (or submission) in contemporary popular music lyrics, music videos, music concerts, and movie soundtracks. These sexualities portrayals, while severely limited in the popular imaginary, also shape the realities of womens experiences in the music industry as lyricists, producers, and performers-?a critical site for examination in scholarly discussions about womens creative and consumptive practices in popular music.Despite these confined scenarios, music can still aid in reflecting and casting feminist issues. Veteran artists have weighed in on representations of women in music and have been encouraged by what they see as a new breed of polltakers, fundraisers, punctuates, rockers, and rappers who otherwise may not view themselves as feminists but nonetheless protest womens subjugation with lyrics that depict anger, even rage, and that also insist that men respect the terms defined by women.In this regard, mutineer women exhibit a new energy, even an explosion of youthful anti-sexist and anti-racist consciousness that creates a stage in popular USIA poised for a renewal in the surge of womens militancy in the world (Heisting 2003). At the same time, there has also been a backlash against womens autonomy within the U. S. Music industry, which has become increasingly corporate as more music studios and radio stations are owned and controlled by fewer media conglomerates, a subject explored by contributing author Meredith Leavened.Within this climate, womens musical roles are presently const ructed in concert with or gendered and reclaimed stereotypes, even while individual artists negotiate and complicate nuanced performances in response. Women in hip-hop, specifically, have battled against their normalization since the genres inception. However, their inclusion in this male-dominated music culture has drastically shifted in the mainstream reception of hip-hop from their identities as emcees and deejays, who could hold their own against their male counterparts, to their relegation to hyper- sexualities roles as music video dancers, models, and groupies.As previously mentioned, hip-hop predominates in this special issue and has generated provocative discourses on the intricate relationships among race, gender, sexuality, class, and nationality. Feminist scholars including Iatric Rose, Gondolas Bough, Main Perry, Kathy Genes, and T. Demean Sharply-Whiting have contributed to the developing field of hip- canella hobnobs r. Dianne Barlow ; introduction hop studies in the academy by bringing attention to gender and sexual politics within the genre, and public intellectuals like Joan Morgan have specifically shaped feminist identities around what she has coined hippo feminism. Morgan has since questioned hip-hop cultures viability for feminist consciousness,l let alone a feminist movement, as have other black feminist scholars, including Beverly Guy- Sheffield, Johnston Cole, bell hooks, and Patricia Hill Collins. Despite mainstream hip- hops increasingly commercial and misogynistic focus, and with fewer opportunities for women in popular hip-hop to create or sustain politically conscious music, there is nonetheless an intrinsic relationship between hip-hop and feminism, which is explored in the essays included in the first section as well as referenced throughout this issue. Both Roses (1994) and Boughs work (2004) have chronicled the history of womens contributions to hip-hop discourse, which began in the early stages of the USIA in sass New York City, thus reminding us of their central positions in the genre, despite its masculinity focus. Shah Rock may have been the first female rapper during this disco/funk era; she first performed as an emcee with Funky Four + One, then later Joined Lisa Lee and Debbie Dee to form Us Girls in the early sass.The release of Square Biz by R B singer Teen Marie in 1981 is among the earliest examples of rapping. Bloodline, best known for her performances in punk rock, also released that same year the hit song Rapture, another pop song that featured rapping. During this decade, rapper Roseanne Shanty, who answered Tufts hit record Roseanne, Roseanne in 1984, thus sparking what was then called the Roseanne Wars, set the stage for hip-hop feminists, whom Bough defines as women and men who step up and speak out against gend er exploitation in hip-hop (Bough 2007, 80).Shantys response opened up creative and critical spaces for other women rappers to express their own desires and discontent, most notably in the work of Salt-N-EPA, who also began their careers with a similar satirical answer to Doug E. Fresh and Slick Ricks 1985 hit record, The Show, with The Showstopper. Female rappers Brat, Siesta Goulash, and Eve, who have all evolved from simply talking back to sexist scripts produced by men to articulating their own perspectives on sexual, racial, and class politics in their music. Yet other rappers, such as Ill Kim and Foxy Brown, have largely embodied tropes of black female hypersensitivity.In a different context, hip-hop artists like Missy Elliot and Misspell Monticello-?the latter is discussed by contributing author Andrea Clay-?have constructed queered meanings of sexuality in their complex performances. Beyond U. S. Borders, female AP artists have adopted hip-hop to address their subaltern realities as marginalia women of color, including Minnie Love in Britain, ALFA (Attachà © Libratio De Linearitys Fminister) in Senegal, MAC Trey of indigenous Australia,2 and Lass Karakas in Cuba, the latter group examined by contributing author Ronnie Armrests.Within U. S. Urban cultural and transnational spheres, hip-hop has also influenced and been shaped by its Caribbean musical cousins, Jamaican danceable reggae and the Latin- based regnant, in which female emcees such as Lady Saw and La Bureau respectively eave also emerged to counter malcontented performances by infusing gender and sexual politics in their song lyrics.Additionally, women in hip-hop have shaped the culture in their other roles as breakfasters, graffiti artists, deejays, hip-hop novelists, filmmakers, and spoken-word poets. Most recently, a group of Busgirls assembled and showcased their contributions to hip-hop in the national event, B-Girl Be: A Celebration of Women in Hip-Hop, in Minneapolis in 2006.While such events and the artists that they celebrate may not be enough to sustain a mass political event-?especially one tied to a music culture that remains hostile to feminist ideals and that is constantly evolving and will eventually be replaced with new music expressions-?th ey do highlight the ways that women continue to resist their normalization and champion their rights to equality and liberation in whatever cultural environments exist for their participation.Hip-hop artist Lauren Hill, formerly of the rap group The Fugues, became perhaps the best example of hip-hop feminisms mass influence and acceptance when her first solo album in 1998, The Insemination of Lauren Hill, garnered critical acclaim, worldwide sales, and five Grammar awards. Nonetheless, we are still left to ponder Hills short-lived trajectory within a historical framework of black (and hip-hop) feminism. Like public orator Maria Stewart in the early nineteenth century and the blues forefathers in the early twentieth century, including Ma Rained, Bessie Smith, Mamma Smith, and Trinitarian- born cross-dresser Gladys Bentley, a short period of ascendancy seems to remain constant for those black women in the public sphere who go against the grain of dominant culture. Hill has yet to produce a follow-up success on the order of The Insemination of Lauren Hill. UT rather preserves it as a building block for a sustained hippo feminist criticism and vision to counter an increasingly neoconservative, globally imperialist, and corporate environment that seeks to squelch it. How do we recapture our historical experience and cultural legacy in the twenty-first century and use it as a guide? This question reminds us of the continuing need for more studies on womens music that incorporate interjectional analysis and that expand the critical lens to include a lobar perspective.Despite the global rea ch of the music industry, which markets U. S. Cultural expressions to the world-? while it simultaneously imports, appropriates, and synchronizes other musical forms-?a transnational feminist analysis of music remains marginal in much of womens studies and music and popular culture studies. Such an analysis is especially crucial to our understanding of current global and local cultural phenomena, especially in the way that these markets merge. It is also central to fostering creative and critical thinking about womens contributions to music.The essays and cultural works included in this issue continue the necessary work begun by feminist scholars and practitioners, within and beyond the academy, in theorizing and analyzing the centrality of women in popular music and in broadening the scope of their representations and performances. These contributions present a range of disciplinary subjects (musicology, sociology, literature, and communication studies), genres (hip-hop, calypso, soul), topics (religion, cinema, post-Hurricane Strain discourse, pornography, media consolidation), and practices (singing, playback singing, art, died production).They also include diverse perspectives from scholars, artists, and music practitioners. The contents of this issue generate a mu ch-needed conversation on historic tensions, recent trends, and future terrains for scholarly and artistic explorations. Hip-Hop (and) Feminism Opening this section (and special issue) is Cannel Hobnobs poem, Hip-Hop Hegemony, which borrows hip-hops language to critique issues of sexual violence and militarism. Echoing the opening verse of the old-school anthem, Sugar Hill Gangs 1981 Rappers Delight, and dedicated to the once anonymous black woman (now named to the world as Crystal Gail Magnum) who reported being raped when she was hired by the Duke lacrosse team on March 13, 2006 to dance at their private party, probably because she resembled the hip-hop music video dancer that they had seen on Fiasco-owned TV, Hobnobs questions the continued viability of hip-hop culture and its supposed representation resisting in this new millennium, the poem also suggests that the sexist, racist, and capitalist hip-hop culture is too intrinsically connected to the corporate machine and U. S. Imperialism-?whether inspiring the reclaimed hiring of stripers (in the case of he Duke lacrosse rape controversy) or the reclaimed killing of civilians overseas in cross strategies that have partnered the music industry with the military, which distributes misogynistic music to soldiers fighting in Afghanistan and Iraq so that they can be appropriately pumped up on the battlefield. However, Hobnobs poem also employs the old-school refrain to suggest that one of hip-hops original functions -?to voice dissent against forces of oppression-?can be reclaimed, especially at this contemporary moment when wars against women, people of color, nations, and even individual artistry in music are ceaseless. Moreover, this poem sets the tone for the rest of the issue, which includes critical and creative works addressing the gendered, raced, classed, and national politics of music.Following is the essay Under Construction by Whitney Peoples, which traces the evolution of hip-hop feminism, focusing less on the music of artists who articulate feminist consciousness and more on black feminist scholars and intellectuals who have responded both to hip-hop culture and the so-called hip-hop generation of young African American women and girls alienated by the feminist struggles of previous generations but who hav e embraced hip-hop music. As Peoples argues, It is ultimately my contention that previous examinations of generational responses to employing hip-hop within feminist practice drew premature lines in the sand, setting black feminists at odds when really they were much more in line with one another. These tensions in black feminism have inevitably shaped intriguing public and personal responses, not only to prevalent sexism in rap music but also to individual hip-hop performers and the ways in which they engage issues of sexuality, a subject explored by Andrea Clay. In her essay on Misspell Monticello, Clay argues, While important works have been written in recent years on the relationship between hip-hop and fem.- miss There is little to no mention of Monticello, particularly her work at bridging these two cultural and political movements. Clay attributes this to the ways that black lesbians in general have been ignored in popular culture, subsequently calling for black feminist interventions in scholarship that might recognize the subversive discourse of queer sexuality and politics that Monticello puts forth in her music. Another point that Clay articulates is the personal investment in popular music that feminist-identified women of color often make when seeking connections with other women of color emerging from this arena. Nowhere is this more evident than in Anyway Mascaras essay, Hotel and Hip-Hop, which considers the formative spaces that exist in hip-hop culture for black Muslim women. Writing as a black Muslim hip-hop artist, Muscular places her own performances in conversation with fellow black Muslim hip-hop artists Eureka Baud and Eve. She also while their faith cultures are often erased or undetected by non-Muslim audiences ND popular culture at large-?whether because of the emphasis on Middle Eastern culture as the normative representation of Muslims or due to the predominance of the black church that renders non-Christians as uncrushed. Moreover, Muscular posits, double standards exist within black Muslim culture that recognizes male hip- hop artists, such as Moms Deaf and Busts Rhymes, whose religious identities often construct the genre of conscious rap, while female rappers such as Eve get castigated for not veiling or for expressing sexuality. Sight and Sound Like any innovative hip-hop track, this issue disrupts the smooth flow of the hip-hop theme by sampling and mixing in other genres and other cultures while maintaining the choral refrain of women in popular music, or the hook of feminist musical resistance. The group of essays in this section explores how the spectacle and spectacular site of womens bodies become nationalized, globalizes, and politicized. Significantly, the essays also consider how these bodies are seen and heard, as well as how music embodies both racial and gender norms and differences in constructions of femininity and nationality. The function of music as a critical site of feminist, religious, and political praxis becomes even more complicated 8 when we leave North America to explore hip-hop and other popular music expressions from different world regions. In this vein, the first essay in this section, Jennifer Thronging Springers Roll It Gal, argues that Barbarian calypso singer Alison Hinds creates an important space in calypso for public discourse on and representation of female sexuality-? one that both challenges the objectification of womens bodies in mens calypso, as well as the politics of respectability that condemns womens dance movements.From a different Caribbean context, Ronnie Armaments essay focuses on the Afro-Cuban female rap group Lass Karakas. Marginalia within the predominantly male hip-hop in dustry on the island, Lass Karakas are further marginalia in the spaces allotted for their performances, thus forcing the group to create moments of transgression when they bring their music and their performances to the streets and, specifically, to the highly policed sites of the tourist-based city of Old Havana. Armrests further argues that they challenge gender, class, and national divides through lyrics that call for Afro-diasporas identity ND global feminism, as well as through noise-making that shifts the soundtracks of the city to allow their entrance into public discourse.Whereas both Springer and Armrests explore the way womens bodies move and inhabit geographical and aural spaces, Patria Sundae contemplates the way womens bodies sound. In her essay, Mere Jazz Suns (Listen to My Voice), Sundae examines legendary Plywood playback singer Lata Manageress, who is primarily heard in Hindi cinema and whose between femininity and nationality. She also uses the example of the Indian film, Lagan, as well as other contemporary playback singers, to further analyze how Manageresss vocalist encodes notions of Hinduism, idealized purity and chastity, and Indian nationality. Sundae thus highlights the gendered meanings of film music and how these meanings shift once they travel beyond Indians borders.Also exploring the sound of womens voices as well as the legacy of discontent and dissonance in black female soul-singing is Daphne Brooks All That You Cant Leave Behind. Situating Beyond Knowles second solo album, a-Day, alongside Mary J. Bilges performance with 1. 12 of their anthem One during the Hurricane Strain Relief Concert in the wake of that natural and political disaster, Brooks incorporates Joseph Roachs performance theo ry of corrugation to argue that both Knowles and Bilge are able to surrogate, or stand in place of, the numerous black women displaced and ignored in the Strain aftermath, by creating in their performances a public voice of dissent and grief. As Brooks explains, each artists work creates a particular kind of black feminist corrugation, that is, a cultural space that articulates black womens distinct forms of palpable sociopolitical loss and grief as well as spirited dissent and assonance. Rage against the Machine Returning to, yet improvising on, this issues hip-hop theme, this final section focuses on the political and sexual economies of the music industry. The works featured here specifically explore music videos, industry laborers, audience reception, and partnerships between popular music and adult entertainment. They also document moments of public anxiety, resistance, dissent, and compliance to what is commonly perceived as popular musics hegemonic presence as corporate culture disseminating familiar tropes of female subordination.This section opens with the art work Still, by Mynah Moor, which recuperates the much maligned hip-hop Mode vixen by photographing stills from contemporary music videos and assigning to these images words of action that suggest that we view the womens bodies as active and formative agents, rather than as mere sexual objects. Strategically distilling such moments in the music video narrative, Moor allows us to revisit familiar representations of women through a feminist lens while centralizing womens roles in music cultures as we examine genres like hip-hop music videos within a larger context of popular culture and contemporary society. Tip Drill, a introversion music video by the rapper Newly in 2004, is referenced in the subsequent essays. Drawing from the videos use of soft porn imagery and the employment of sex workers, the various authors in this section explore how its oversexed images allude to the behind-tetchiness exploitation of black women laborers in video production, how it precipitated protests from black women, and, In Drop It Like Its Hot, Make Fits examines the role of culture industry laborers in rap music video production. Based on interviews with primarily African American producers, directors, and performers who work on the production of the booty died-?a specific genre of rap video that emphasizes the behinds of women of color through party, beach, or club scenes-?Fiftys essay aims to shift the focus in hip-hop scholarship from lyrics and visual representations to the relationship between specific culture industry laborers, the products produced, how they resonate with the consumer market ND the level of alienation and distance from the music products experienced by the artists and the consumer. O n the other end of this political economy is the audience, the subject in Shania Reid-Brinkley essay, The Essence of Re(sex)peculiarity. Here, Reid-Brinkley examines a series of incidents in 2004 involving black womens responses to rap music, which began with students at Seaplane College who organized a protest against Knells Tip Drill video, which led further to the Essence magazine staffs installation of Take Back the Music, a campaign featuring articles and an Internet scribble board that allowed for public discourse on the issue of misogyny in rap music and videos. Using communication and discourse theories, Reid-Brinkley analyzes the various messages posted on this board that engaged the subject and questions the constrictive roles that numerous lack women advocated for respectable black femininity, especially in their celebration of the Queen, the flip side of the maligned ho or Mode vixen. Exploring both culture industry laborers and the public discourse of respectability among black community members, Miracle Miller-Young argues in Hip-Hop Honeys and Dad Hustles for a different reading of black sexualities that are constructed in the genre of hip-hop pornography, which has emerged in cross-marketing strategies between hip-hop and adult entertainment.This new genre in porn opened up a space to explore what Miller-Young terms the illicit erotic economy of black sexuality and also increased Job opportunities for black porn actresses, who numbered only in the single digits at the beginning of the porn explosion in the sass but whose numbers ro se exponentially in the sass and in the new century with the creation of this genre. Examining the ways that black masculinity in hip-hop culture depends upon tropes of black female hypersensitivity and interviewing porn actresses and other laborers in the industry, Miller Young suggests that a space exists for black sexual subjects to refashion themselves and their sense of pleasure, even though it functions in the hetero-patriarchy. Like Miller-young, singer/songwriter Meredith Leavened, in the closing essay, Women, Pop Music, and Pornography, recognizes the partnership between music and pornography.Unlike Miller-young, Leavened argues in her essay that this merger between the two industries further limits, rather than opens, new possibilities for womens cultural and sexual expressions. She also illuminates how media consolidation and the FCC deregulation of media ownership limits have created a corporate structure in which pornography has become a billion-dollar business, thus en couraging media owners to push a pornography agenda across all Edie, which has led to an increasingly hyperventilated representation of women in music. She further argues that the present pornographic trend perhaps began in reaction to the feminist-based music festival Lithe Fair in the late sass, especially since much of the rhetoric in womens popular music equates hypersensitivity with feminism.Moreover, Leavened suggests, incidents such as the Janet Jackson Superpower scandal in 2004 and the marketing of low-key music artists like Nora Jones merely serve as ploys and decoys to temper the obviousness that women in music are possibly product placements for adult entertainment that these same Edie conglomerates own. The contributors to this issue have raised provocative questions and myriad topics that expand our thoughts on womens contributions to hippo and popular music. They especially demonstrate complex theories and analyses that emerge when critical attention is given to intersections among race, class, gender, sexuality, and (trans)nationality.